Theories of Human Motivation

     There are three theories of human motivation: behavior theory, theory of unconscious motivation and cognitive motivational theory.

            The behavior theory, which was formulated by Whiting and Child (1953), stated that a few basic motives acquired in early infancy proliferate into the behavior system in later life. Many kinds of behavior  are influenced by the motive of  stimulus - response relationships and learning (habit formation).
              According to this theory, adult behavior can be classified into a few behavior system. Each system consists of a st of habits or customs motivated by a common inborn or early acquired  motive leading to a common satisfactions. Considering five behavior systems - oral, anal, sexual. dependency and aggression - the first three are developed from motives like hunger, elimination and sex. The last two (dependency and aggression) are acquired in early childhood as a result of the infant's helplessness and inevitable frustration.


              The theory of unconscious motivation originated from Freud and psychoanalysis. Unconscious motives are manifested in the form of dreams, mannerisms, slips of speech and symptoms of neurosis. Sex and aggression are prominent impulses that find indirect, symbolic or disguised expressions.


               The cognitive theory of motivation by John W. Atkinson (1964) accepted some important findings of other theories. According to this theory goals control behavior. Some persons are highly motivated by hope of success, while others are fear of failure. Depending on the task, a person's motivation is expressed as motivational disposition, incentive and expectation. There is an awareness of what is going on, the deliberate tendency to anticipate the future, to plan and take risk.

Stress Management

                        Stress Management
                            
                            

                                 


                       

                 Stress is a multi-faceted process that occurs in reaction to events or situations in life which are termed as stressors. Stress, as defined by Hans Selye(1979), is the non-specific response of the body to any demand made upon it. Every demand in the body evokes certain non-specific result as well. The body responds in one way to the loss of fluid, in other way to lack of sleep. But all demands on the body evoke generalized, non-specific responses.Common stressors we encounter everyday are school, work, health, love, family, and friends.

                When stressed, the body goes through this three stages starting with an alarm, a brief period of high arousal of sympathetic nervous system to prepare the body for a rigorous activity. This is followed by resistance. The body responds by secreting hormones which enable the person to sustain a high steady level of activity to endure prolonged stress. If stress is even more more intense and long-lasting, the body enters into the third stage called exhaustion. When severe and lengthy stressful state occurs, it weakens the immune system and leave the individual vulnerable to illness. This results to what is called Generalized Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) which is characterized by weakness, fatigue, loss of appetite and general lack of sleep.


    

          *Major Types of Stress
             Frustration 
                Frustration occurs when the individual's pursuit of some goals are thwarted. In short we experience frustration when we want something that we cannot have. 
                      Failures and losses are two common kinds of frustration that are often very stressful.

             Conflict 
                      Conflict happens when the person is made to choose between two opposing or competing goals. Conflict come in four types- the approach-approach, the avoidance-avoidance, the avoidance-approach, multiple approach-avoidance.

                       In approach-approach conflict, the individual is torn to choose between two attractive goals. The problem is of course, that by choosing the other goal, the individual will sacrifice the satisfaction of the other. Among the types of conflict approach-approach is the least stressful.
            Example: Choosing between your favorites, the chocolate or ice cream.

                        In avoidance-avoidance conflict involves choosing between two unattractive goals. In this type of conflict, the person is torn between two repelling alternatives.
           Example: a sick person may dread submitting himself for a surgery but also doesn't want to live in his pain.

                       Approach-avoidance conflict involves the pursuit of a single goal that has both attractive and unattractive aspects. Is common very stressful. This conflict means you have to take risks or sacrifice something valuable to you in order to attain a desired goal.
          Example: A late night party with close friends may be pleasurable to a student. But if he chooses to enjoy the party, he would miss reviewing for his important examination and get a failing grade in the subject.

                       The last but is considered the most stressful is the multiple approach-avoidance conflict. It occurs when a person is confronted with making decisions about alternatives with multi-faceted positive and potential outcomes. For instance, in making major decisions, we are sometimes need to consider a lot of factors -- conflicting demands of family, spouse, children, friends, society, which may also conflict with our personal choice.    

                Change
                          Stress is also due to life changes or alterations in one's living circumstances that require readjustment.
              Pressure
                         This type of frustration occurs when an event becomes so intense that we can no longer adapt to it. There are two common types of pressure. The first is known as overload, which is particularly a problem among some employees and students.. We experience this think that there is too many things to be done in too little time. Next is the over expectation, we may set performance standard that are too high that work cannot be satisfactorily completed at a given time.







As a student, we cant avoid being stressed. Stress is not an emotion but rather a psychological process that occurs in reaction to events or situations in life.


                      Everywhere and in our everyday life we encounter stress, these are caused by the stressors, and some majors stressors are frustration, pressure,conflict and changes in life. When we fail in a major subject or get the lowest score in the test we get frustrated. You are in a hurry because you're getting late in class but the traffic is so heavy, this cause you to get frustrate. When we expect something good but the result is not,we are subject to frustration or worse depression.

                      Many factors pressure us, family, studies, friends and of course our environment. In school, when the examination is approaching and you need to pay your bill so that you can get your exam permit but then you don't still have enough money to pay, that must be one factor that is pressuring you. And one more thing, you have to study very very hard to get a high score in your exam because your parent is expecting too much from you, how will you handle this? What is written above are some examples that causes stress. As we are being pressured we get stressed. Many factors around us can cause a person to get stress. How will you manage your stress? How as a student cope with stress?

Stress management encompasses techniques intended to equip a person with effective coping mechanisms for dealing with psychological stress.

• Diminish intensity in your life.   Pinpoint those areas or aspects which summon up the most concentrated intensity and work toward alleviating that pressure.
• Slow down.  Stress makes people feel rushed. Rushing only increases the pressure. Speak, walk and do slowly.
• Adapt to your environment. Learn how to control your environment. Eliminate time wasters. Control your time.
• Keep your sense of humor.  Begin to bring joy and happy moments into your life.
• Relax yourself by taking your mind off your stress and concentrating on breathing and positive thoughts.
• Listen to music.
• Stay calm and focus.
• Always plan ahead.  Planning ahead of time avoid delays, forgetting and cramming.
• Be organized.  Being organized makes you think and remember things better.
• Exercise.
• Nutrition and sleep.  Don't forget that health is wealth. Eat the right kinds of food. Get enough of rest.
• PRAY.  Always talk to God. Pray that he would grant you the strength and courage to fight and continue life. Remember He's got your back.

                         Stress can become your motivation,to find out what you are made of and it can let you reach you true potential.Your stress can help you live, you just need to know how to use it a good way. Achieve!!

references: Psychology and You

                General Psychology by Juan C. Birion

Cycle of Motivation

     When a goal is achieved, the individual rarely stops ther. Often, the accomplished goal leads to other drives. A person never gets contented. One goal leads to other motives or drives.

Abraham Maslow expressed increasing needs of human beings in a heirarchical order. He viewed man’s needs in a ladder-like sequence where one need leads to another until the goal is attained.

        If we ask "Why do we eat?" and get an answer "Because we are hungry," does it give a complete picture of motivation? What about the corollary questions - "Why do we stop eating? and "Why do we get hungry again?"


       To get answers to these, we should understand the principle of homeostasis. Homeostasis is the process of maintaining internal equilibrium, that is, keeping all the body's metabolic and chemical processes in good functioning order. This equilibrium in our internal environment is responsible for keeping us alive and in good health; when that equilibrium is lost, poor health sets in. It involves the proper balance in our metabolic processes, amount of oxygen in our body cells especially in the brain, temperature of the body, amount of sugar in the blood, and amount of water in the body tissues. When the balance of these elements or body processes is lost. Homeostasis is upset and the body mechanisms will set into action towards recovering that lost equilibrium. An example is what happens in thirst.


            When water level in the cells run low, we say that the body  is in a state of need. We want water. This will instigate tension and restlessness. The need for will be communicated to the brain  and the brain will send a messages to the muscles drive so as to activate a drive. Seeking behavior directed to a goal will start. This behavior will continue until the goal is attained and the need has been satisfied. Satisfaction of the need will eliminate the drive and restore homeostasis, that is, until the next need arises and another cycle begins. The cycle of motivation includes three stages, therefore: 1) a state of need in the organism, 2) seeking behavior is directed, attainment in which eliminates the need and restores homeostasis

Maslow's Hierarchy of needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The Psychologist Abraham Maslow developed a theory that suggests we, humans, are motivated to satisfy five basic needs. These needs are arranged in a hierarchy, Maslow suggests that we seek first to satisfy the lowest level of needs, once this is done, we seek to satisfy each higher level of need until we have satisfied all five needs.

The Hierarchy of Needs is as follows;

1.       Physiological needs

2.       Security/safety needs

3.       Love/belongingness needs

4.       Esteem needs

5.       Self-actualization needs

In practical application of this five hierarchy of needs. I related this to the life of an employee.

An employee’s beginning emphasis on the lower order needs of physiology and security makes sense.

Generally, a person beginning their career will be very concerned with physiological needs such as adequate wages and stable income and security needs such as benefits and a safe work environment. As an employee they all want a good salary  to meet the needs of our family and we want to work in a safety environment. After that the employee will want his “belongingness”  needs met. This level of social interaction an employee desires will vary based on whether the employees is an introvert or extrovert .the point there is that employees desire to work in an environment where they are accepted in an organization and have some interaction with others.

When that first three needs are satisfied, an employee will want his higher level needs of esteem  and self-actualization. Esteem needs are tied to an employee’s image of himself and his desire for the    and recognition of others.  Meaning job tithe is one of the important to an employee’s esteem.

With self-actualization , the employee will be interested in growth and individual development. He may want a challenging job to get an opportunity to complete further education.

 At this highest level an employee want to do more and to know more of his capacity an example of this is a promotion, where an employee can meet his own actualization needs.

The basic idea of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is that our needs are constantly changing. As one need is met we desire other needs.

End!!!

Theories of Personality

Personality

Ø The word personality comes from the Latin word per and sonare, which literally means “to sound through”. Apparently the word persona comes from these two words, which means an actor’s mask through which the sound of his voice was projected.

Ø Personality is defined as the configuration of characteristic and ways of behaving which describe and individual’s unique adjustment to his environment. It includes characteristic that are important in a person’s adjustment and maintenance of self-respect.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

          Types Theories

Ø One kind of type classification is the theory of body types as determiners of personality considered in the body types are bodily constitution, health and vigor. Among the contemporary psychologist, William Sheldon developed a type theory based on bodily characteristic. The term used to describe the components were derived from the names of the cell layers in the embryo where different bodily tissues originated.

3 COMPONENTS

1.     Endomosphic

              Refers to the prominence of the intestines and other visceral organs. The person of this type tends to be fat in proportion to height.

2.     Mesomorphic

              A component refers to bones and muscles. This individual is strong, tough, and athletic and tends to be well built and well proportioned.

3.     Ectomorphic

              Based on the delicateness of skin, fine hair, and sensitive nervous system.  Tends to be long, thin, and poorly developed on the whole, this individual is rather weak physically.

Sheldon also believes that these are three ways in which one’s temperament varies the obese individual or a person who shows a preponderance of endomorphy is classified temperamentally as vicerotonic . Such as a person seek comfort, loves fine foods.  And eats too much. This person is sociable and is greatly interested in seeking affection. The mesomorph, is somatotonic is energetic, like to exercise and is direct in manner. This individual tends to be aggressive and self-assertive. The ectomorph is cerebratonic,is excessive restraint is inhibited and avoid social contacts. Other classification of personality based on behaviour is the psychological type theory proposed by Swiss Psychologist Carl G. Jung (1875 – 1961 ) . Jung classified individuals through into introverts and extroverts.

INTROVERTS

Tends to withdraw into themselves especially in times of emotional stress or conflict. They are governed primarily by subjective factors are subjectives feelings. They are shy and preferred to walk alone.

EXTROVERTS

Very sociable, well – dress and outgoing. There decisions and actions are determine primarily by objective relationships. Their attentions and interests are centred on the immediate environment and they tend to loose themselves among people.

Galen four types of personality

Sanguine – person is warm hearted and pleasant has a prominence of blood.

Phlegmatic - is listless and slow. These qualities are attributed to Phlegm.

Melancholic – suffer from depression and sadness because of having of too much black bile.

Choleric – person is angered are temperamental as influenced by yellow bile.

According to William’s (1956). The basis of temperament is the chemistry of the body.  Each person has distinct pattern of endocrines activity and individual temperature as a kind of endocrines symphony.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

 The psychoanalytic theory strongly influenced other theories as well as technique of therapy.  Psycho analysis as developed by Freud divides personality structure into three parts. The Id , storehouse of extinctive pleasure seeking impulses of libido or sexual desire, the ego controls the expression of this impulses in accordance with the demands of social reality, and ; the superego , or seat of the individuals moral Ideas of right and wrong. The ego must compromise the conflicting demands of the Id and superego.

 In personality development, an individual process through several stages: the oral period, during which satisfaction centre around sucking and mouth activities.  The anal period, during which bowel control is achieved; the phallic – Oedipal, when sign of sexuality appear and there is a strong attraction to the parent of the opposite sex ; The Latency period, during the early school years, and the Genital period, beginning in adolescence when the person achieves adult sexuality.

FIELD THEORY

 Some psychologists have been influenced by the concept of field theory of the physical sciences. Based on the study of electromagnetic fields, this theory postulates fields of force which are dynamic and constant shifting equilibrium. Psychological events, like physical events, are thought to represent a balance and interaction of many forces. A change anywhere in the system will affect the whole system. Gestalt list in nature, behaviour is shaped not by individual chain of cause and effect, but by the combination of forces which make up the entire field.

Kurt Goldstein, a leading exponent of the field theory, developed the organismic theory which stresses the orderly unfolding of the inherited potentialities of the organism, with self-actualization as human’s highest goal. According to him particular symptoms are not the product of particular diseases or injuries but products of the organism behaving as a whole.

Carl Rogers, an organismic theorist, emphasized the individual’s world of experience, phenomenal field, especially the concept of self. It is the individual’s perceptions and interpretations that determine ones behaviour. From the

interaction with the environment, the individual develops a self-concept which becomes ones most valued possession. The individual behaves in ways that are consistent with the picture of oneself. The person tends to reject or distort incoming information that is threatening to the self. The most basic drive of the human organism is toward self-actualization.

Like Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow stressed the importance of self-actualization. He studied and listed the characteristics of healthy self-actualization individuals. He regarded human’s inborn nature as basically good but is easily overcome by social pressure. Self-actualization person are particularly capable of loving and of being loved in the fullest way.

          Self-actualization is also emphasized in existentialism. This postulates that a person first exists and then chooses what he or she shall be.

STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

                                                                     

               Neal Miller and John Dollard extended stimulus-response learning theory to explain both personality development in childhood and the changes that take place in psychotherapy; they emphasized the importance of the environment in determining how the individual’s uses inborn biological drives. Feelings and motivations as well as overt behaviour can be learned. Stimuli provided by the environment, especially reward and punishment, determined what individuals learn.

Robert R. Sears stressed the importance of studying dyodic unit; (groups of two or more person). He believes that the largest and most significant part of human behaviour involves the interaction of people.

Another theorist who emphasized the role of the learning process in the development of personality is Hobart Mowrer. He developed a dual theory of the nature of learning. While Dollard and Miller regard reward as essential to learning. Mowrer holds that this is true only in solution learning. The individual acquires a tendency to respond in the particular way in order to solve a problem.

Reference:  General Psychology by Agustin G. Huyong







"Application Type Theory"

If you are taking test for a sales job and asked question regarding your level of extroversion/introversion, is it likely that you might lie or stretch truth to get the  job?
If you are introvert you may feel this would hinder your chances. So instead, you respond positively to the extrovert question such as " I prefer social activities" or " I enjoy being the center of attraction.


Another application of the personality  type theory has been in the workplace for example. A sales person would likely do better if he or she is an extrovert, a teacher more likely to succeed if he or she is conscientious, or a nay seal more likely to get the job done  if he/she is confident and open new experiences.

source: allpsych.com/personalitysypnosis

Theories of Emotion

Theories of Emotion

James Lunge Theory

This theory proposes that our experience of emotion is due to our awareness or perception of the physiological and bodily responses we make to an emotion producing situation. Thus, based on this theory, we are happy because we smile, afraid because we tremble, or in love because our heartbeats fast when we see the object of our affection.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Walter Cannon criticized Lames Lange Theory particularly on its assumption that people can differentiate between physiological changes that go with an emotional reaction and thereby identify the emotion that they experiencing. He claimed that there was no evidence to prove this assumption. In lieu of James-Lange explanation, he proposed a theory of his own, which was later expanded by Philip Bard and came to be known as the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion.

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion proposes that emotion producing stimuli activate the lower brain center, the hypothalamus, which sends messages to the celebral cortex and organs such as the heart and stomach. This stimulation of the celebral cortex results in the experience of emotion and  excitation  of the organ leading to the physiological arousal accompanying the said experience of emotion . Thus for Cannon, emotion and physiological arousal occur at the same time, not one after another.

Schacter-Singer Theory

This theory was proposed in the early 1960s, by Stanley Schacter and Jerome Singer. According to this theory, when people become aware that they are aroused, they searched their environment to look for their arousal. This interpretation of arousal leads them to experience a specific emotion.

For instance, when we began to experience physiological arousal, we look for an explanation for it by examining the situation we are presently in. Depending on the available information from the environment, we then to give a label to the experience we are having.

Opponent-Process Theory

This theory was developed by Richard I. Solomon and his colleagues. According to this theory, each emotion or state that we  experience triggers a force to experience the opposite emotion or state. For instance, if we are pain, we tend to feel  a sense of relief when the stimulus of pain is removed if we feel happy in the company of our peers or loved ones we feel unhappy, if they are not around.

Accordingly, the effects of the opposite pair is to diminish the intensity and duration of our emotional experience, and to increase the likelihood that we experience the opposite emotion.

reference : General Psychology

authors: Agustin G. Huyong 

Psychology is a scientific study of  human behavior and mental processes. It covers everything that people think, feel and do. Psychologists differ in how much importance they place on a specific type of behavior, some believers that you should study only that you can see, observe or measure directly while other psychologists believe that fantasies, thoughts and feelings are also important even though these behaviors are not directly observable. Consider the story of the blind men and the elephant. A long time ago, three very wise but blind men were out on a journey when they came across a sleeping elephant. Because they could not see the elephant,they did not know  what was blocking their way so they set about to discover it. As it happened, each man put his hands on the different parts of the elephant the first man, having felt the elephant's trunk, describe a creature that was long, wormlike, and quite flexible."No, no! You must be mistaken," this creature is wide, very round, and does not move very much." The man who was holding one of elephant's tusks added his description of a small, hard pointed creature. Each of these men was correct in he's description  of what he felt, but in order, to understand the elephant fully, they needed to combined their accumulated knowledge. The study of human behavior is similar. Many different approaches are necessary to understand the complex richness of human behavior.
 Sensation and perception is one of the interesting topics in psychology. It tells how your senses works and how your brain interpret things that surrounds you. To better understand sensation and perception let's define it first.
Sensation is the passive process of bringing information from the outside into the body and to the brain while perception is the active process of selecting, organizing and interpreting information brought to the brain by the senses.
When you hear your mom shouting, soundwaves enter the pinna travel down the auditory canal, vibrate the eardrum, set the ossods in motion, move the hair cells, which change the vibrations into neural impulses. This is what you called sensation, what about perception? Perception takes place when you are able to recognize that your mom is shouting. this is only an example of how sensation and perception help us to recognize and interpret things in our environment. 
Perception always entails sensation as a part of itself. Sensation in return, never happens in adult life without perception hearing these. This two processes always help us to recognize and appreciate the things that is present in our environment.


Reference: Understanding Psychology : fourth edition